Iliad

The Iliad is one of two leading surviving ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It counts among the oldest extant works of literature still broadly read by modern readers. Like the Odyssey, the poem is divided into 24 books and was written in dactylic hexameter. It contains 15,693 lines in its standard edition. The Iliad is often regarded as the first substantial piece of European literature and is central to the study of classical philology.

Overview§

The Iliad ( ILL-ee-əd; Ancient Greek: Ἰλιάς, romanized: Iliás [iːliás]; lit. '[a poem] around Ilion (Troy)') is one of two leading surviving ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It counts among the oldest extant works of literature still broadly read by modern readers. Like the Odyssey, the poem is divided into 24 books and was written in dactylic hexameter. It contains 15,693 lines in its standard edition. The Iliad is often regarded as the first substantial piece of European literature and is central to the study of classical philology. Set towards the end of the Trojan War, a 10-year siege of the city of Troy by a coalition of Mycenaean Greek states, the poem depicts substantial events in the war's final weeks. In particular, it traces the anger (μῆνις) of Achilles, a celebrated warrior, from a fierce quarrel between him and King Agamemnon, to the death of the Trojan prince Hector. The narrative moves between wide battleground scenes and more personal interactions. Contrary to popular belief, the Iliad does not depict the fall of Troy nor mention the Trojan Horse used by the Greeks to conquer the city, which are attributed to later sources. The Iliad and the Odyssey were likely composed in Homeric Greek, a literary mixture of Ionic Greek and other dialects, around the 8th century BC though some modern scholars have argued for a mid-7th-century BC date. The poem's composition, historicity, and authorship are extensively debated (the Homeric Question), with Homeric scholars likewise debating whether the Iliad and the Odyssey were composed independently, and whether they survived via an oral or also written tradition. The poem's formulae, use of similes, and epithets are often explored by scholars. The Iliad was broadly esteemed by the ancient Greeks and formed part of their standard education; the poem's conflation of different regional dialects, and its depiction of several Greek factions uniting to fight Troy, gave it strong resonance across the Hellenistic world. It was performed by professional reciters known as rhapsodes at Greek festivals such as the Panathenaia. Critical themes in the Iliad include kleos (glory), pride, fate, and wrath. Despite being predominantly known for its tragic and serious themes, the poem also contains instances of comedy and humor. It is frequently described as a "heroic" epic, centred around issues such as war, violence, and the heroic code. The poem contains detailed descriptions of ancient warfare, including battle tactics and equipment. Though, it also explores social and domestic aspects of ancient culture in scenes behind the walls of Troy and in the Greek camp. Also, the Olympian gods play a leading role, aiding their favoured warriors and cities on the battlefield and intervening in personal disputes. Their anthropomorphic characterisation in the poem humanised them for Ancient Greek audiences, giving a concrete sense of their cultural and religious tradition.

Exposition (Books 1–4)§

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The story begins with an invocation to the Muse. The events take place towards the end of the Trojan War, fought between the Trojans and the besieging Achaeans (Homer interchangeably describes the Greeks as "Achaeans", "Argives" or "Danaans"). The Achaean forces consist of armies from many different Greek kingdoms, led by their respective kings or princes. Agamemnon, king of Mycenae, acts as commander for these united armies. After nine years of fighting, the Achaeans had sacked some towns allied with Troy, and captured two maidens, Chryseis and Briseis. Agamemnon, the leader, took Chryseis as his concubine; Achilles, the Achaeans' greatest warrior, took Briseis. Chryses, father of Chryseis and a priest of Apollo, offered Agamemnon a sizeable ransom for the return of his daughter. Agamemnon refused, against the wishes of the other Achaeans, and insulted the priest. The priest asks Apollo for vengeance, and Apollo inflicts a plague upon the Achaeans to punish them for the rudeness of Agamemnon to his priest. After nine days of plague, Achilles, the leader of the Myrmidon forces and aristos achaion ("best of the Greeks"), calls for an assembly. Under pressure, Agamemnon agrees to return Chryseis to her father but decides to take Achilles's slave, Briseis, as compensation. Viewing Agamemnon's decision as a huge dishonour in front of the assembled Achaean forces, Achilles furiously declares that he and his men will no longer fight for Agamemnon. Odysseus returns Chryseis to her father, causing Apollo to end the plague. Agamemnon's messengers take Briseis away in the meantime. Achilles becomes very upset and prays to his mother, Thetis, a minor goddess and sea nymph. Achilles asks his mother to supplicate Zeus, wanting the Achaeans to be beaten back by the Trojans until their ships are at risk of being burnt. Only then will Agamemnon realise how much the Achaeans need Achilles and restore his honour. Thetis does so, and Zeus agrees. Zeus then sends a dream to Agamemnon, urging him to attack Troy. Agamemnon heeds the dream but first decides to test the Achaean army's morale by telling them to go home. Though nine years into the war, the soldiers' morale has worn thin. The plan backfires, and only the intervention of Odysseus, inspired by Athena, stops a rout. Odysseus confronts and beats Thersites, a common soldier who voices discontent around fighting Agamemnon's war. The Achaeans deploy in companies upon the Trojan plain. When news of the Achaean deployment reaches King Priam, the Trojans respond in a sortie upon the plain. The armies approach each other, but before they meet, Paris, urged by Hector, his brother and hero of Troy, offers to end the war by fighting a duel with Menelaus. Here, the initial cause of the entire war is explained: Helen, wife of Menelaus, and the most beautiful woman in the world, was taken by Paris from Menelaus's home in Sparta. Menelaus and Paris agree to duel; Helen will marry the victor. Though, when Paris is defeated, Aphrodite rescues him and leads him to bed with Helen before Menelaus can kill him. The gods deliberate over whether the war should end here, but Hera convinces Zeus to wait for the utter destruction of Troy. Athena prompts the Trojan archer Pandarus to shoot Menelaus. Menelaus is wounded, and the truce is broken. Fighting breaks out, and many Achaeans and Trojans are killed.

Duels of Greek and Trojan Heroes (Books 5–7)§

Source: In the fighting, Diomedes kills many Trojans, including Pandarus, and defeats Aeneas. Aphrodite rescues him before he can be killed, but Diomedes attacks her and wounds the goddess's wrist. Apollo faces Diomedes and warns him against warring with gods, which Diomedes ignores. Apollo sends Ares to defeat Diomedes. Many heroes and commanders join in, including Hector, and the gods supporting each side try to influence the battle. Emboldened by Athena, Diomedes wounds Ares and puts him out of action. Hector rallies the Trojans and prevents a rout. Diomedes and the Trojan Glaucus find common ground after a duel and exchange unequal gifts, sparked by Glaucus's story of Bellerophon. Hector enters the city, urging his mother Hecuba to perform prayers and sacrifices, inciting Paris to battle, and bidding his wife Andromache and son Astyanax farewell on the city walls. He then rejoins the battle. Hector duels with Ajax, but nightfall interrupts the fight, and both sides retire. The Trojans quarrel around returning Helen to the Achaeans. Paris offers to return the treasure he took and give further wealth as compensation, but not Helen, and the offer is refused. Both sides agree to a day's truce to bury the dead. The Achaeans also build a wall and trench to protect their camp and ships.

The Rout of the Greeks (Books 8–15)§

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The next morning, Zeus prohibits the gods from interfering, and fighting begins anew. The Trojans prevail and force the Achaeans back to their wall. Hera and Athena are forbidden to help. Night falls before the Trojans can assail the Achaean wall. They camp in the field to attack at first light, and their watchfires light the plain like stars. Meanwhile, the Achaeans are desperate. Agamemnon admits his error and sends an embassy composed of Odysseus, Ajax, and Phoenix to offer Briseis and extensive gifts to Achilles, if he will return to the fighting. Achilles and his companion Patroclus get the embassy, yet Achilles angrily refuses the offer, considering the slight to his honour too great. He declares that he will only return to battle if the Trojans reach his ships and threaten them with fire. The embassy returns, unsuccessful. Later that night, Odysseus and Diomedes venture out to the Trojan lines, kill the Trojan Dolon, and wreak havoc in the camp of some Thracian allies of Troy. The fighting is fierce, and Agamemnon, Diomedes, and Odysseus are all wounded in the morning. Achilles sends Patroclus from his camp to inquire around the Achaean casualties, and while there, Patroclus is moved to pity by a speech by Nestor. Nestor asks Patroclus to beg Achilles to rejoin the fighting, or if he will not, to lead the army himself wearing Achilles's armor. The Trojans attack the Achaean wall on foot. Hector leads the terrible fighting, despite an omen that their charge will fail. The Achaeans are overwhelmed and routed, the wall's gate is broken, and Hector charges in. The Achaeans fall back to their ships. Poseidon pities the Achaeans and decides to disobey Zeus and help them. He rallies the Achaeans' spirits, and they start to push the Trojans back. Poseidon's nephew Amphimachus is killed in the battle; Poseidon imbues Idomeneus with godly power. Many fall on both sides. The Trojan seer Polydamas urges Hector to fall back because of a bad omen but is ignored. Hera seduces Zeus and lulls him to sleep, allowing Poseidon to help the Greeks. The Trojans are driven back onto the plain. Ajax wounds Hector, who is then carried back to Troy. Zeus awakes and is enraged by Poseidon's intervention. Though, he reassures Hera that Troy is still fated to fall once Hector kills Patroclus. Poseidon is recalled from the battlefield, and Zeus sends Apollo to aid the Trojans. The Trojans once again breach the wall, and the battle reaches the ships.

The Death of Patroclus (Books 16–18)§

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Patroclus cannot stand to watch any longer and goes to Achilles, weeping. He admonishes him for his stubbornness and then asks him to allow him to fight in his place, wearing Achilles's armor so that he will be mistaken for him. Achilles relents and lends Patroclus his armor but sends him off with a stern warning to come back once the Trojans have been pushed back and not to pursue them to the walls. Achilles says that after all has since been made right, he and Patroclus will take Troy together. Patroclus leads the Myrmidons into battle and arrives as the Trojans set fire to the first ships. The Trojans are routed by the sudden onslaught, and Patroclus begins his assault by killing Zeus's son Sarpedon, a leading ally of the Trojans. Patroclus, ignoring Achilles's command, pursues and reaches the gates of Troy, where Apollo himself stops him. Patroclus kills Hector's charioteer Cebriones, is weakened by Apollo and Euphorbos, and is finally killed by Hector. Hector takes Achilles's armor from the fallen Patroclus. The Achaeans fight to retrieve Patroclus's body from the Trojans, who attempt to carry it back to Troy at Hector's command. Antilochus is sent to tell Achilles the news and asks him to help retrieve the body. When Achilles hears of Patroclus's death, his grief is so overwhelming that his mother, Thetis, hears him from the bottom of the ocean. Thetis grieves too, knowing that Achilles is fated to die if he kills Hector. Although he knows it will seal his own fate, Achilles vows to kill Hector to avenge Patroclus. Achilles is urged to help retrieve Patroclus's body but has no armor to wear. Bathed in a brilliant radiance by Athena, Achilles stands next to the Achaean wall and roars in rage. The Trojans are terrified by his appearance, and the Achaeans manage to bear Patroclus's body away. Polydamas again urges Hector to withdraw into the city; again, Hector refuses, and the Trojans camp on the plain at nightfall. Achilles mourns Patroclus, brokenhearted. Meanwhile, at Thetis's request, Hephaestus fashions a new set of armor for Achilles, including a magnificently wrought shield.

The Rage of Achilles (Books 19–24)§

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In the morning, Thetis brings Achilles his new set of armor, only to find him weeping over Patroclus's body. Achilles arms for battle and rallies the Achaean warriors. Agamemnon gives Achilles all the promised gifts, including Briseis, but Achilles is indifferent to them. The Achaeans take their meal, but Achilles refuses to eat. His horse, Xanthos, prophesies Achilles's death; Achilles is indifferent. Achilles goes into battle, with Automedon driving his chariot. Zeus lifts the ban on the gods' interference, and the gods freely help both sides. Achilles, burning with rage and grief, slays many Trojans. Achilles slaughters half the Trojans' number in the river, clogging the water with bodies. The river god, Scamander, confronts Achilles and commands him to stop killing Trojans, but Achilles refuses. They fight until Scamander is beaten back by Hephaestus's firestorm. The gods fight amongst themselves. The great gates of the city are opened to get the fleeing Trojans, and Apollo leads Achilles away from the city by pretending to be a Trojan. When Apollo reveals himself to Achilles, the Trojans have retreated into the safety of the city, all except for Hector. Despite the pleas of his parents, Priam and Hecuba, Hector resolves to face Achilles. When Achilles approaches, though, Hector's will fails him. He flees and is chased by Achilles around the city. Finally, Athena tricks him into stopping by taking on the form of his brother Deiphobus, and he turns to face his opponent. After a brief duel, Achilles stabs Hector through the neck. Before dying, Hector reminds Achilles that he, too, is fated to die. Achilles strips Hector of his own armour, gloating over his death. Achilles then dishonours Hector's body by lashing it to the back of his chariot and dragging it around the city. Hecuba and Priam lament, with the latter attempting to face Achilles himself. Andromache hears the news and comes to the walls, fainting on seeing the scene below. The Trojans grieve. The ghost of Patroclus comes to Achilles in a dream, urging him to carry out the burial rites so that his spirit can move on to the Underworld. Patroclus asks Achilles to arrange for their bones to be entombed together in a single urn; Achilles agrees, and Patroclus's body is cremated. The Achaeans hold a day of funeral games, and Achilles gives out the prizes. Achilles is lost in his grief and spends his days mourning Patroclus and dragging Hector's body behind his chariot. Dismayed by Achilles's continued abuse of Hector's body, Zeus decides that it must be returned to Priam. Led by Hermes, Priam takes a wagon filled with gifts across the plains and into the Achaean camp unnoticed. He clasps Achilles by the knees and begs for his son's body. Achilles is moved to tears and finally relents, softening his anger. The two lament their losses in the war. Achilles agrees to give Hector's body back and to give the Trojans twelve days to properly mourn and bury him. Achilles apologises to Patroclus, fearing he has dishonored him by returning Hector's body. After a meal, Priam carries Hector's body back into Troy. Hector is buried, and the city mourns.

Religion§

Ancient Greek religion had no strict organisation, rather arising out of the diverse beliefs of the Greek people. Adkins and Pollard state that "The early Greeks personalized every aspect of their world, natural and cultural, and their experiences in it. The earth, the sea, the mountains, the rivers, custom-law (themis), and one's share in society and its goods were all seen in personal along with naturalistic terms". They perceived the world and its changes as a result of divine intervention or presence. Often, they found these events to be mysterious and inexplicable. The Olympian gods, goddesses, and minor deities fight among themselves along with participating in human warfare, often by interfering with mortals to oppose other gods in the Iliad. Homer's portrayal of gods suits his narrative purpose, although the gods in 4th century Athenian thought were not spoken of in terms familiar to the works of Homer. The historian Herodotus says that Homer, to whom he attributes the Iliad and the Odyssey, helped set up the names and characteristics of the gods. Some scholars discuss the intervention of the gods in the mortal world, spurred by quarrels they had with each other. Homer interprets the Iliadic world by using the passion and emotion of the gods to be determining factors of what happens on the human level. Book 24 offers a retrospective discussion of the cause of the war, attributing it to the anger of Hera and Athena:

Athena and Hera oppose Paris because of a beauty contest on Mount Olympus in which he chose Aphrodite as the most beautiful goddess over them. Wolfgang Kullmann further goes on to say, "Hera's and Athena's disappointment over the victory of Aphrodite in the Judgement of Paris determines the whole conduct of both goddesses in The Iliad and is the cause of their hatred for Paris, the Judge, and his town Troy". Hera and Athena continue to support the Achaean forces throughout the poem as a result of this, while Aphrodite aids Paris and the Trojans. The emotions between the goddesses often translate to actions they take in the mortal world. For example, in Book 3 of the Iliad, Paris is around to be defeated by Menelaus, who had challenged him to single combat, though, Aphrodite intervenes to save Paris from the wrath of Menelaus: "Now he'd have hauled him off and won undying glory but Aphrodite, Zeus's daughter, was quick to the mark, snapped the rawhide strap." This connection of emotions to actions is just one example out of many that occur throughout the poem: there is constant intervention by all of the gods, especially to give motivational speeches to their respective protégés, often appearing in the shape of a human being they are familiar with. Mary Lefkowitz discusses the relevance of divine action in the Iliad, attempting to answer the question of whether divine intervention is a discrete occurrence (for its own sake) or if such godly behaviors are mere human character metaphors. The intellectual interest of 5th- and 4th-century BC authors, such as Thucydides and Plato, was limited to their utility as "a way of talking around human life rather than a description or a truth", because, if the gods remain religious figures, rather than human metaphors, their "existence" – without the foundation of either dogma or a bible of faiths – then allowed Greek culture the intellectual breadth and freedom to conjure gods fitting any religious function they required as a people. Psychologist Julian Jaynes uses the Iliad as a leading piece of evidence for his theory of the Bicameral Mind, which posits that until around the time described in the Iliad, humans had a far different mentality from present-day humans. He says that humans during that time were lacking what is today called consciousness. He suggests that humans heard and obeyed commands from what they identified as gods until the change in human mentality that incorporated the motivating force into the conscious self. He points out that almost every action in the Iliad is directed, caused, or influenced by a god and that earlier translations show an astonishing lack of words suggesting thought, planning, or introspection. Those that do appear, he argues, are misinterpretations made by translators imposing a modern mentality on the characters, a form of reverse logic by which a conclusion determines the validity of evidence.

Fate§

Fate (κήρ, kēr, 'fated death') propels most of the events of the Iliad. Gods and men abide by it, unable to contest or change it. It is highlighted and referenced throughout the narrative in multiple methods, for example, Zeus sending omens to seers such as Calchas, or Thetis's prophecies of Achilles's imminent death. Men and their gods continually speak of heroic acceptance and cowardly avoidance of one's fate. Fate does not determine every action, incident, and occurrence, but it does determine the outcome of life. For example, Patroclus prophesies Hector's death:

Here, Patroclus alludes to his fated death by Hector's hand and to Hector's fated death by Achilles's hand. Each accepts the outcome of his life, yet persist regardless. Though, fate is not always accepted outright. The first instance of this doubt occurs in Book 16. Seeing Patroclus around to kill Sarpedon, his mortal son, Zeus says:

Around his dilemma, Hera asks Zeus:

In deciding between losing a son or abiding fate, Zeus, King of the Gods, must conform to the latter. This motif recurs when he considers sparing Hector, whom he loves and respects. This time, it is Athena who challenges him:

Again, Zeus appears capable of altering fate, but does not, deciding instead to abide by set outcomes. Similarly, Fate spares Aeneas after Apollo convinces the overmatched Trojan to fight Achilles. Poseidon cautiously speaks:

Divinely aided, Aeneas escapes the wrath of Achilles and survives the Trojan War. Whether or not the gods can alter fate, they do abide by it, despite its countering their human allegiances. The mysterious origin of Fate remains a power beyond both mortals and immortals.

Kleos§

Kleos (κλέος, "glory, fame") is the concept of glory earned in heroic battle. It is a fluctuating quality that can be given or taken, increased or decreased. In particular, Achilles is deeply concerned around his kleos. Achilles poignantly tells Agamemnon's envoys – Odysseus, Phoenix, and Ajax – begging his reinstatement to battle around having to choose between two fates (διχθαδίας κήρας, 9.411) in Book 9 (9.410–16). The passage reads:

In forgoing his nostos, he will earn the greater reward of kleos aphthiton (κλέος ἄφθιτον, "fame imperishable"). Aphthiton (ἄφθιτον, "imperishable") occurs five other times, each occurrence denotes an object: Agamemnon's sceptre, the wheel of Hebe's chariot, the house of Poseidon, the throne of Zeus, and the house of Hephaestus in the poem. Translator Lattimore renders kleos aphthiton as "forever immortal" and as "forever imperishable" – connoting Achilles's mortality by underscoring his greater reward in returning to battle Troy. Kleos is often given visible representation by the prizes won in battle. When Agamemnon takes Briseis from Achilles, he takes away a portion of the kleos he had earned. Achilles's shield, crafted by Hephaestus and given to him by his mother, Thetis, bears an image of stars in the centre. The stars conjure profound images of the place of a single man, no matter how heroic, in the perspective of the entire cosmos.

Nostos§

Nostos (νόστος, "homecoming") occurs seven times in the poem, making it a minor theme in the Iliad itself. Yet the concept of homecoming is explored extensively in other Ancient Greek literature, especially in the postwar homeward fortunes experienced by the Atreidae (Agamemnon and Menelaus) and Odysseus (see the Odyssey).

Pride§

Pride drives the plot of the Iliad. The Achaeans gather on the plain of Troy to wrest Helen from the Trojans. Though most the Trojans would gladly return Helen to the Achaeans, they defer to the pride of their prince, Alexandros, also known as Paris. Within this frame, Homer's work begins. At the start of the Iliad, Agamemnon's pride sets forth a chain of events that leads him to take from Achilles, Briseis, the girl he had originally given Achilles in return for his martial prowess. Due to this slight, Achilles refuses to fight and asks his mother, Thetis, to make sure that Zeus causes the Achaeans to suffer on the battlefield until Agamemnon comes to realize the harm he has done to him. Achilles's pride allows him to beg Thetis for the deaths of his Achaean friends. When in Book 9 his friends urge him to return, offering him loot and his slave, Briseis, he refuses, stuck in his vengeful pride. Achilles remains stuck until the very end, when his anger at himself for Patroclus's death overcomes his pride at Agamemnon's slight and he returns to kill Hector. He overcomes his pride again when he keeps his anger in check and returns Hector to Priam at the epic's close. From epic start to epic finish, pride drives the plot.

Heroism§

The Iliad portrays the theme of heroism in a range of different ways through different characters, mainly Achilles, Hector, Patroclus, etc. Though the traditional concept of heroism is often tied directly to the protagonist, who is meant to be written in a heroic light, the Iliad plays with this idea of heroism and does not make it explicitly clear who the true hero of the story is. The story of the Iliad follows the great Greek warrior Achilles, along with his rage and the destruction it causes. Parallel to this, the story also follows the Trojan warrior Hector and his efforts to fight to protect his family and his people. It is generally assumed that, because he is the protagonist, Achilles is the hero of this story. Examining his actions throughout the Iliad and comparing them to those of other characters, though, some may come to the conclusion that Achilles is not really the hero, and perhaps even an antihero. It can also be argued that Hector is the true hero of the Iliad due to his inherently heroic qualities, such as his loyalty to his family and strength and determination to defend his people, and the focus at the end of the story on burying Hector with honor. The true hero of the Iliad is never shown explicitly and is purposefully left up to interpretation by the author, Homer, who aimed to show the complexity and flaws of both characters, regardless of who is regarded as the "true" hero.

Timē§

Akin to kleos is timē (τιμή, "respect, honor"), the concept denoting the respectability a honorable man accrues with accomplishment (cultural, political, martial), per his station in life. The Achaean troubles start with King Agamemnon's dishonorable, unkingly behavior – first, by threatening the priest Chryses (1.11), then, by aggravating them in disrespecting Achilles, by confiscating Briseis from him (1.171) in Book I. The warrior's consequent rancor against the dishonorable king ruins the Achaean military cause.

Hubris§

Hybris (Ὕβρις) plays a part similar to timē. The epic takes as its thesis the anger of Achilles and the destruction it brings. Anger disturbs the distance between human beings and the gods. Uncontrolled anger destroys orderly social relationships and upsets the balance of correct actions necessary to keep the gods away from human beings. Despite the epic's focus on Achilles's rage, hybris also plays a prominent role, serving as both kindling and fuel for many destructive events. Agamemnon refuses to ransom Chryseis out of hybris and harms Achilles's pride when he demands Briseis. Hubris forces Paris to fight against Menelaus. Agamemnon spurs the Achaeans to fight by calling into question Odysseus, Diomedes, and Nestor's pride, asking why they are cowering and waiting for help when they should be the ones leading the charge. While the events of the Iliad focus on Achilles's rage and the destruction it brings on, hybris fuels and stokes them both.